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Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, often described as “the father of modern science.” He was born in Pisa, Italy on February 15, 1564. His parents were Vincenzo Galilei and Guilia Ammannati. His father was a famous composer, musician, and music theorist and his mother was from a wealthy aristocratic background. Galileo had an older sister named Virginia and a younger brother named Michelangelo.From a young age, Galileo showed great skill in mathematics, leading his father to have him educated under the mathematician Ostilio Ricci in Florence. While in Florence, Galileo was exposed to the lectures of the Tuscan court mathematician Christophorus Clavius. Under the influence of Ricci and Clavius, Galileo developed a fascination with mathematics and physics, choosing to pursue scientific studies over a career in medicine as his father wished.In 1581, Galileo enrolled at the University of Pisa to study medicine. While at Pisa, however, Galileo became more and more interested in mathematics and physics, causing him to neglect his medical studies. It was at Pisa that Galileo conducted his famous experiments with falling objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to test Aristotelian theories of motion. Though the results supported Copernican theories, few were listening at that time to the 22 year old student. Having offended his teachers and openly criticized Aristotelian professors, Galileo left the university without his degree in 1585.After leaving the University of Pisa without a degree, Galileo began teaching private lessons on mathematics in Florence and Siena. During this time, he published his first scientific work, The Little Balance, describing an accurate balance to measure small quantities. This brought Galileo minor fame among scholars.In 1589, Galileo was appointed to the Chair of Mathematics at the University of Pisa, allowing him to return as a professor. The appointment was somewhat unusual, partly because Galileo was a Tuscan and the student body was dominated by Florentines and partly because he never completed his degree. During his three years at Pisa, Galileo continued his experiments and began giving public lectures on astronomy. In 1591, he moved to the University of Padua in the Republic of Venice after Florence temporarily fell under control of the Holy Roman Empire.At Padua, Galileo taught mathematics and was able to pursue his investigations into astronomy. It was here that Galileo made significant discoveries, including “the law of falling bodies” and detailed observations of the Moon that revealed its mountainous terrain. He also worked on the design for a thermometer during this time. His work gained wider notice and his services were requested by many foreign nations. During this period Galileo also studied the works of Copernicus and concluded in favor of heliocentrism, the concept that the Sun was at the center of the universe. This was seen as heretical by the Roman Catholic Church due to Scripture passages implying geocentrism.In 1604, a supernova appeared in the skies over Europe, making a strong impression on Galileo. Galileo published a paper on the supernova, showing important observations that disproved many common beliefs in Aristotelian astronomy, much to the dislike of proponents of the more traditional viewpoints. The same year, Galileo also developed an improved compass for military and surveying use.In 1609, Galileo learned of the invention of the telescope in the Netherlands. Using his own technical skills, Galileo began designing and building telescopes after learning the concepts. By August 1609, he had improved upon the Dutch design and built an 8x magnified telescope. He continued to improve his designs, reaching 20x magnification the next year.With his telescopes, Galileo began a wide ranging study of the heavens including the Moon, stars, and planets. In 1610, Galileo published important astronomical observations showing mountains and craters on the Moon, the proper rotation of sunspots, and the fact that the Milky Way was made up of individual stars. His discoveries caused great debate in European intellectual circles, splitting proponents of the old geocentric model such as Aristotelians and the Roman Catholic hierarchy, and the new model shown by telescopic observations. The publicity over the controversy made Galileo famous across educated Europe.In the same year as his telescopic observations, 1610, Galileo also published a treatise on buoyancy and the concept of floating objects he had devised. This laid the groundwork from important later studies of dynamics and statics. He also studied the parabolic path of projectiles, paving the way for the study of ballistics.In 1611 Galileo visited Rome where he was treated with honor and greeted as a celebrated intellectual figure, including receiving a friendly audience with Pope Paul V. He was likewise honored in Florence and Venice with many seeking audiences with the ...